Essay on Fate in Oedipus Rex and The Seagull :: comparison compare contrast essays

Role of Fate in Oedipus Rex and The Seagull The inevitability of fate is a tonality theme in Sophocles Oedipus Rex and in Chekhovs The Seagull. I was fascinated by the ways this inevitability was conveyed by Chekhov and Sophocles respectively and the ways in which the actions of the characters contributed to and heightened their fate. I sh on the whole attempt to equation and contrast the way in which Oedipus and, to a lesser extent, Nina consume their fates more unbearable by their own actions and choices. In each case the author uses characterization to enhance and increase the sense of inevitability and hence the sense of tragedy in the respective plays. Sophocles has created his Oedipus not as innately evil but as a likeable character. It is this that makes the conclusion of his play sluice more tragic.1 Had Oedipus been presented as an evil character we would have felt much less sympathetic towards him, as it is Oedipus appears to be the very essence of goodness at the commencement of the play and in this way makes his downfall owing to a realisation of the truth even more dramatic. He is an ideal king - one who feels for his people. This addition to a well-known story by Sophocles makes the resultant dramatic irony extremely effective. His evident flaws of character make it plausible that he could have unknowingly killed his father and married his mother. He is human but at the start of the play his excessive pride, impetuousness and efficiency, all human failings, seem to obscure and divert his search for the truth. Furthermore, he is arrogant and conceited, particularly concerning his personal successes Oedipus Why, when the monster with her song was here, spakst thou no word our countrymen to back up? And yet the riddle lay above the ken...and called for prophets skill...but then I came...and slew her. These features of Oedipus personality lead him inevitably to assume that he, the great Oedipus, liberator of his people, could not possib ly be the murderer that they seek. Hence, it is Oedipus inflated ego that causes his fate to be so severe and his downfall so great at the end of the play. Furthermore, despite Teiresias words previous(predicate) in the play, Oedipus refuses to believe the truth that he is responsible for Laios death. His arrogance leads him to unknowingly curse himself, thus making his fate worse

Dynamics of Change in International Relations Essay examples -- Intern

Dynamics of Change in International RelationsThe Oxford dictionary defines the act of migrating as meaning to move to settle to a new force field in order to find work.1 This seems to be presupposing that the primary motivation of migrants is employment. However, as I will go on to highlight, economic social and governmental factors in various combinations have always affected the various constant waves of migration throughout history2. I will look at how past and forward-looking flows examine and their effects on global society.There are two main issues around migration firstly how states plenty control and regulate migration levels. States are after totally sovereign and reserve the right to be able to choose who to allow in and out of its boundaries. The second issue that has come about in the modern era is how to deal with the minority communities that migrants form within host states. This depends on the causes that it perceives the people migrated for and the political, s ocial and economic circumstances of the receiving state itself. If the migrant community has beefed-up links with its previous community in the home state still and actually works to affect political and social affairs over there, perhaps even using the power and protection of the host state, they are known as diasporas. They will be discussed further on.Causes of migration can be divided initially into whether the migration was involuntary, or political due to war, natural disasters, ethnic, persecution, coercion or exploitation, or voluntary. State responses to involuntary migrants are under the ruling of the Universal Declaration of humane Rights of 1948 and the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees of 1951. However, all an applicant state is obliged to do is to consider all applications for asylum, not grant them. There is though the clause which states that a host state cannot turn the asylum seeker back to their country of origin if there is evidence their life is i n danger.Voluntary migrants on the early(a) hand have no such guarantee as their motives for migration are social or economic, not deemed to be necessary or they are bootleg migrants. This definition of illegal depends on the circumstances of the host country and who they choose to allow in according to their laws or not. The mixing of political and economic though would seem to be more inevitable in future as socie... ...ised that monitoring and regulating migration will become almost impossible if the EU enlarges whatsoever further. To discourage the right wingers in their country, traditional host states have taken a hard line on migration to maintain social stability. In actuality, it can be argued that by doing so, the governments have undermined the very stability they sought as, people will not stop being persecuted and seeking shelter, whether legal or not14. deeds CitedSita Bali, Migration and Refugees in Brian White, Richard Little, and Michael Smiths (ed.), Issues In Politics (London, Macmillan Press Ltd., 1997)David Held et al., Global Transformations (Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, 2003S. P. Huntington, The Hispanic Challenge, Foreign Policy, Volume 141 (March/April 2004) p. 30 45A, McKeown, Conceptualising Chinese Diasporas, 1842 - 1949, The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 52, No. 2 (May 1999) p. 306 337Yossi Shain and Aharon Barth Diasporas and International Relations Theory, International Organisation, Vol. 57, (Summer 2003) p. 449 479Compact Oxford English Dictionary http//www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/migrate?view=uk 25th November 2004

Geroge Patton :: Essays Papers

Geroge PattonI am going to talk about the Pattons life in general. This includes his child hood, education, his militarycareer, and his stake in the piece wars.George was born on a ranch on November 11, 1885 in SanGabriel, California. He went to school in Pasadena andlater to the Virginia Military Institute from 1903-1904. Hewas not a good student, but he was an excellent sailor. Hewas also a great track athlete. He took part in theOlympics at Stockholm in 1912 and set a world record intarget shooting. He also won first or second flummox inswimming, horsemanship, and racing.On May 26, 1910 George married Beatrice Ayer of Boston. They had 1 son and 2 daughters. The son went to West Pointin 1942 and both daughters married army men.In 1904 he was official to the United States MilitaryAcademy. He graduated in 1909 and was commissioned tosecond lieutenant of Calvary.He was first involved in an tour in Mexico as anaide to General Pershing in 1917. He was a member ofPershings s taff and went to France and studied french TankTactics and the French Tank School. During arena War 1, he started a tank training schooland commanded a tank brigade. He was awarded theDistinguished Service Cross for his courge, energy, and erudition in order the advance of his brigade in1918. From 1919-1928, he commanded and trained severaldifferent brigade units around the United States. From1928-1931, he served in capital letter D.C. as the important ofCalvery. He commanded many different calvalry units from1932-1938. During this time he earned the permanent rank ofLieutenant Colonel.During World War 2, he commanded U.S. forces inMorocco, Tunisia, and Sicily. In 1944 he was given command of the third army. Thethird army broke through the German defense and advancedacross France. In bump into 1945, they crossed the Rhine riverGeroge Patton Essays PapersGeroge PattonI am going to talk about the Pattons life in general. This includes his child hood, education, his m ilitarycareer, and his involvement in the world wars.George was born on a ranch on November 11, 1885 in SanGabriel, California. He went to school in Pasadena andlater to the Virginia Military Institute from 1903-1904. Hewas not a good student, but he was an excellent sailor. Hewas also a great track athlete. He took part in theOlympics at Stockholm in 1912 and set a world record intarget shooting. He also won first or second place inswimming, horsemanship, and racing.On May 26, 1910 George married Beatrice Ayer of Boston. They had 1 son and 2 daughters. The son went to West Pointin 1942 and both daughters married army men.In 1904 he was appointed to the United States MilitaryAcademy. He graduated in 1909 and was commissioned tosecond lieutenant of Calvary.He was first involved in an expedition in Mexico as anaide to General Pershing in 1917. He was a member ofPershings staff and went to France and studied French TankTactics and the French Tank School. During World War 1, he started a tank training schooland commanded a tank brigade. He was awarded theDistinguished Service Cross for his courge, energy, andintelligence in directing the advance of his brigade in1918. From 1919-1928, he commanded and trained severaldifferent brigade units around the United States. From1928-1931, he served in Washington D.C. as the Chief ofCalvery. He commanded many different calvalry units from1932-1938. During this time he earned the permanent rank ofLieutenant Colonel.During World War 2, he commanded U.S. forces inMorocco, Tunisia, and Sicily. In 1944 he was given command of the third army. Thethird army broke through the German defense and advancedacross France. In March 1945, they crossed the Rhine river

The Inflence of Rivers and Climate on Baghdad, Iraq Essay -- Environme

The Inflence of Rivers and Climate on Baghdad, IraqThe Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, along with their reaction to the climate, have both helped and hurt Baghdad, Iraq. The rivers provided pathways to other civilizations, allowing Baghdad to grow into the transportation and cultural center of Iraq. Its robust soil, deposited by flooding, provided the area with the ability to become the birthplace of civilization through tremendous agricultural production. Although the flooding of the rivers greatly enhanced the area, it has also had disastrous effects, staidly damaging food production and the culture of its people.Baghdads geographical location has allowed the city to flourish due to the availability of transportation. The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers have encouraged avocation between societies, enhancing cultural and economic development. Every new development of transportation has helped the expansion of Baghdad, an example being the invention of the steamboat. The relatively fast moving ships brought substantial wealth to the area by permitting more frequent communication and travel to other societies. Less navigable sections of the rivers were later made passable by the administration of navigation channels. The need for more transportation systems led to the construction of railways, including more than thirty bridges crossing the rivers which connect Baghdad with much of the rest of the country.1 Baghdad, possessing gigantic highways, railways, canals, and an airport as a result of its ease of development by geographic and climatic advantages, is the center of Iraqi transportation.The hot, arid summer climate of Iraq precipitates close to no rain, causing winter rains to significantly increase water levels. The clima... ...ad, occupied Iraq , International Action Center, New York City, New York, 22 November 2004.http//www.iacenter.org/wct_ghazwan.htmAl-Obaidi, Hisham and Toumia, Noor J., History of Iraq, 2004. 2 November 2004.http//www.geocities.com/i raq4everjo/history.htm eating the Iraq Way, 22 November 2004.http//www.settlement.org/cp/english/iraq/eating.htmlOffice of the Iraq Programme Oil-for-Food, Oil-for-Food, 4 November 2004. 9 December 2004.http//www.un.org/Depts/oip/background/index.htmlRailroads, Water Resources, Country Studies US, 9 December 2004.http//countrystudies.us1 Railroads, Water Resources2 Al-Obaidi, Hisham and Toumia, Noor J., History of Iraq3 Al-Mukhtar, Ghazwan, WTI testemony from Iraq Baghdad, occupied Iraq 4 Eating the Iraq Way5 Railroads, Water Resources6 Office of the Iraq Programme Oil-for-Food, Oil-for-Food

student :: essays research papers

The Tome is a letter written by Leo to his brother Flavian, which addresses the current scandal within the church. This rivalry began with the dishonoring implications of a monk named Eutyches that sparked uproar between church officials concerning the true nature of our Lord. The question of whether the Son of God is divine or hu objet dart in nature, pressure church officials to decide His true essence, while attending the Council of Chalcedonian in the year 451. Providing evidence for the Council, the Tome diminishes the foundation and basis of Eutychess argument of Two Natures and offers complete adjudge to Flavian. At the time of its composition, this document was considered an accurate portrayal of the common faith, hence establishing its immense importance to the church.Although Leos declaration of the Gospel of God and man in Christ appears to be flawless in its interpretation, the tome proves to be vaguely insufficient considering its sporadic utilization of philosophica l speculation. This factor is eroded by the dominatingly ingratiatory and stressed voice of the piece, which is considered by theologians to be a fine specimen of the straightforwardness and clarity of the Latin mind (359). The Tome proves to be both influenced by and afterwards affecting the once youthful tradition of the Roman Liturgy. The actual text is written in the form of a receipt to a previously true letter concerning the Eutychess defiance of the integrity of faith. Once considered a presbyter, or wise elder, his status is diminished by the unwavering opinion of Leo. The disgraceful bare-assed standing is based on the proposal that Eutyches is exceedingly inconsiderate and pathetically uneducated regarding his views of the church and the nature of Christ. The letter inadvertently accentuates the importance of redefining Christianity as a product of defense. Leo accomplishes this by providing evidence to counter the argument of the opposing force.Leos first argument re sults from an accusation offered by Eutyches and other heretics, which questions the prosopopoeia of the Word of God. In the defense of Christianity, Leo retorts that it should be apparent to all believers that the obscurity of and response to this query can be resolved in the rite of Confession, the Holy Scriptures, and most evidently in the Apostles Creed, which is reiterated at every mass. Eutychess complication with understanding the common faith expands to another topic, through which the Tomes response results in the affirmation of the human and divine nature of Christ.

student :: essays research papers

The Tome is a letter written by social lion to his brother Flavian, which addresses the current scandal within the church. This controversy began with the dishonoring implications of a monk named Eutyches that sparked uproar amidst church officials concerning the true nature of our Lord. The question of whether the Son of God is divine or human in nature, forced church officials to decide His true essence, trance attending the Council of Chalcedonian in the year 451. Providing reason for the Council, the Tome diminishes the foundation and basis of Eutychess argument of Two Natures and offers complete support to Flavian. At the time of its composition, this document was considered an faultless portrayal of the common faith, hence establishing its immense importance to the church.Although Leos declaration of the Gospel of God and man in Christ appears to be flawless in its interpretation, the tome proves to be vaguely insufficient considering its sporadic utilization of philosop hical speculation. This factor is eroded by the dominatingly persuasive and stressed voice of the piece, which is considered by theologians to be a fine specimen of the straightforwardness and clarity of the Latin mind (359). The Tome proves to be both influenced by and later affecting the once youthful custom of the Roman Liturgy. The actual text is written in the form of a response to a previously received letter concerning the Eutychess defiance of the oneness of faith. Once considered a presbyter, or wise elder, his status is diminished by the unwavering opinion of Leo. The disgraceful new standing is based on the design that Eutyches is exceedingly inconsiderate and pathetically uneducated regarding his views of the church and the nature of Christ. The letter inadvertently accentuates the importance of redefining Christianity as a product of defense. Leo accomplishes this by providing evidence to counter the argument of the opposing force.Leos first argument results from an a ccusation offered by Eutyches and other heretics, which questions the incarnation of the Word of God. In the defense of Christianity, Leo retorts that it should be apparent to all believers that the obscurity of and response to this query can be resolved in the ritual of Confession, the Holy Scriptures, and most evidently in the Apostles Creed, which is reiterated at every mass. Eutychess complication with understanding the common faith expands to another topic, through which the Tomes response results in the affirmation of the human and divine nature of Christ.

Cipd Employment Law Essay

Supporting Good Practice in Managing avocation Relations 3MER Introduction The aim/objectives of this assignment atomic number 18 to explore employee relations in detail, including the internal and external factor impacting on physical exertion family relationship, psychological contract, and differences in the midst of sporty and unfair dismissals, redundancy. 1. empathize the impact of employment law at the start of the employment relationship 1.Internal and external factor that impact on the employment relationship The absolute melodious bond between employers and employees is crucial for the smooth running of an organisation, where there is a give and scan relationship and there are various factor affecting the relationship internally and Externally i. e. Organisational culture , historical context, performance, expect and reward, economic factor, technology factor, unemployment etc. Internal Factor Organisational culture is defined by many writers as cosmos the way we do things round here It is manifested in the rituals of an organisational, in its people, dress, habits, on the hypothecate(p) times and style, attitudes , office lay push through , almost constantlyy intangible aspect of its being. It is in addition perpetuated by stories, office gossip, heroes and heroines, decor, social life and the langu long time that various parts of the organisation regularly use at transaction. (CIPD 2011) * Psychological contract the term was first utilise in the early 1960s but became much(prenominal) popular following the economic downturn in the early 1990s.It has been defined as the perceptions of the two parties, employee and employer, of what their interchangeable obligations are towards each other. (CIPD 2012). In which employers except commitment to goals and value, hard running(a), flexibility, honestly, be courteous to client and staff. In return employee except a pleasant and good working environment, job security, pays commensu r ate with performance feedback, skill development aid to employability and fair treatment. External Factor Technological factor Due to the ever increase demand of technology there are advantage and disadvantage. There are development in energy sources, mobile technology and medical discoveries etc. These help oneself employees to develop the skills and training. And the like may also create a gap in the market or barrier for the entry in the given market, which may de-motive staff. Economical factor Slow economic growth/ decline may result in employees just fortunate of having a job.Due to the euro crisis, lowest interest rate, commute rates and inflation rate, wage rates and unemployment. 2. The different types of employment status There are three main categories of employment status such as Employee Has a contract of benefit, ask set working hours, have options of paternal leave, have rights of unfair dismissal. Workers Does the work personally, either may have set working h ours contract may be verbal or written, they usually work for fixed time, doesnt have rights of unfair dismissal.Business/ Genuinely Self- Employed They contract for attend to and employers are the customers, they have a set of working hours, is contracted for each model of work either verbal or written, contracted by service not time and doesnt hold any rights for unfair dismissal/ redundancy. 1. 3 Identify and analyse the agreements why it is important to determine an individuals employment status Below are the 3 major employment status and reasons for the importance of identifying them Permanent An employee has a permanent contract, has access to all the perks and benefits in the firm.Under the Employment Rights locomote 1996 permanent employees are authorise to written terms and conditions afterwards 8 weeks of employment and once they have acquired continuous employment for a certain period of time they acquire certain rights (e. g. 1 year for right to claim unfair dismi ssal 2 years for redundancy payments). They also have the employment rights such as Statutory Sick Pay. An employee receives a wage/salary rather than seeking remuneration in the form of clams whether the wage is subject to deductions under the PAYE scheme whether an employee is obliged to perform the duties of his or her job.The Company provides the tools, equipment, premises or any other materials that are required to do the work. In economic down turn employers may reduce their or put in a cap into their employees bonus or pay rise. Contractors/ Self Employed Whereby a person will work for themselves rather than an employer. It is important to establish this type of worker as they will be entitled to the core legal rights, they will be entitled to receive the National Minimum Wage and be protected against unlawful deduction from wages.They dont receive any holiday pay or sick pay when they are not available for work. Economic down turn may not affect to such an individual. Ag ency workers or temps They have the opportunity to sign on several employment agencies and deal work on a smorgasbord of assignments through out the year for different organisation. It is important to establish this type of worker as they will be entitled to the core legal rights. They are paid on invoice and may be VAT registered and be protected against unlawful deduction from wages. . Understand the main individual rights that the employee has during the employment relationship 2. 1 condone the importance of work life balance within the employment relationship and how it can be influenced by commandment The Working beat Regulations (1998) implement the European Working Time Directive into GB law. The purpose of the legislation was to have adequate breaks. The importance of work life balance in an employment relationship is vital for two way relationship.To keep an individual motivated to avoid sluggish, to make them feel happier and valued. An individual is more refreshed af ter a regular break and can be more effective into this work and put in new ideas which leads to enhance the performance. A tired worker is more likely to make mistake- but due to WTR there may be reduction of mistakes. There is also a good employer branding close to the globe encouraging more people to apply for jobs. A positive culture is build up with an individual willing to work and better productivity.According to the WTR Act an employee can work an intermediate up to 48 hours a week (opt out), a right to have break for 20 minutes any 6 hours in work, a right to have a day off each week, Entitled for 28 days annual leave every year, an average of 8 hours of work in a night shift. 2. 2 Summarise the legal support that may be given to employees as a family element In our present time and looking at the current situation there are both employee and employers are in need to maintain a good working life balance.Employers have to keep employee motivated, help them in case of eme rgency i. e. (allowing them to work flexible time) and help them understand gestation, paternity, adoption pay. maternalism Leave and Pay A employee who is a new mother of her biological child is entitled to have 39 weeks of SMP (Statutory Maternity Pay), the first 6 weeks is 90 percent of their average gross weekly earning with no upper limit and the next 33 weeks at lower of either the standard rate of ? 135. 45, or 90 percent of their average gross weekly earning. each pregnant employees are entitled for 52 weeks statutory maternity leave (26 weeks ordinary leave and 26 weeks supernumerary leave). Compulsory maternity leave is of two weeks immediately after giving birth during which the employee is not permitted to work. writing Leave The Employment Act 2002 which includes Paternity Leave. An employee should qualify for such a leave and pay if they have been in the company for 26weeks or more. From 3 April 2011 additional entitlement to ordinary paternity leaves which is mini mum of 2 weeks and additional of 26 weeks. 20 weeks after the child is born). Additional Paternity Leave is for a maximum of 26 weeks. If the employees partner has returned to work, the leave can be taken between 20 weeks and one year after your child is born. Adoption Leave and Pay An employee who has worked continuously for the same employer for 26 weeks or more qualify for paid adoption leave. There are two types of adoption leave 26 weeks ordinary adoption leave and 26 additional adoption leave, giving a total of 52 weeks. SAP (Statutory Adoption Leave) is payable for 39 weeks.The rate of SAP is same as the lower rate of SMP. Dependant Leave An employee whose child is under 5 or who has a disable child age 18 or under they holds the right to take parental leave. An employee who has a continuous service least for a year qualifies for paternal leave. An employee have the right to have unpaid time off work to deal with emergencies involving a dependant this could be employees husb and, wife, partner, child, parent, or anyone living in your household as a member of the family. 2. 3 Explain the reasons for treating employees fairly in relation to payThe purpose of the Equal Pay Act 1970 is to eliminate discrimination between men and women in terms of pay. This law gives a cleaning woman the right to be paid the same as a man like work, work of equal value and work rated as equivalent by analytical job evaluation study. Enhancing Employer Brand Giving them equal pay boosts employees confident, keep employees motivated and to keep them in the business longer then ever before. At Bloomberg these benefits are based on the annual salary, and salaries are benchmarked to job levels which are assigned to the role.This ensures salaries are fair for the job being performed, regardless of gender, race, or age, to ensure there is no discrimination among employees. Increased Productivity Due to the Act there is an ever increasing productivity to be seen, At trip the light fantastic a case occurred where employees knew there is equality in gender and pay in turn out. Employees were treated fair, the morale increased, they are well known for their excellent customer/ client service and employees started to settle down within their jobs for long period of time. 2. 4 Summarise the main points of discrimination legislationAnti Discrimination legislation is now incorporated within the Equality Act 2010. The purpose of this legislation is to build up nine separate pieces of anti discrimination legislation into a single Act, creates a new single equality duty on public bodies, and allows for wider equality objectives to be included in tenders for public sector contracts. The lists of 9 protected characteristics are Age, Disability, Gender reassignment, marriage and civil partner, pregnancy and maternity, race, religion or belief, sex and sexual orientation.Direct discrimination This occurs when roundone is treated less favourably than another on accoun t of having a disability, or on the grounds of age, sex, race, religion or sexual orientation. When deciding whether direct discrimination has taken place a comparator issued. At Bloomberg all employees are treated equally but not discriminating between an older and younger candidate going for the same job. Indirect discrimination This is when a disability or sex is disadvantaged by a provision, criterion or practice which is broadly applied.These could be policies at work, college rules and qualifications. At JIG there were changes made on working shift patterns to dress and display the new lines in the company which were out of business hours. All employers were required to work till 10 twice a week. Women are going to be immoderately affected by this, as women are more likely than men to have caring responsibilities. One particular woman cannot work the shifts and she claims indirect discrimination, as the shift changes particularly disadvantage women who may appetency to bundl e children from school and right out her normal duties.Victimisation This occurs when an employee is treated less favourably because they have made or supported a complaint related to the Act, or they are suspected of doing so. At Bloomberg security there was occasion where an employee has given evidence in connection to a discrimination claim, and 4 months after they felt that they have been victimised by their supervisor due to these event that had happened. Harassment The Harassment Act was introduced in 1997 to protect individuals from harassment situations in and out of the workplace.Harassment is where an employer or an employee violates another persons dignity or creates an uncomfortable or offensive environment for them. Such a situation has not only arisen at Bloomberg. 2. 5 Explain the good practice that underpins organisational policies and can contribute to the psychological contract Psychological contract has been defined as the perceptions of the two parties employee and employer, of what their correlative obligations are towards each other. (CIPD 2005) An individuals expectation that some organised ystem will act with predictability or goodwill (Maguire and Phillips 2008). The psychological contract is more positive if there is evidence of the following A high-quality workplace this is made up of six factors linked to stress and well-being, namely a manageable workload, some personal control over the job, support from supervisors and colleagues, positive relationships at work, a reasonably clear role, a sense of control or involvement in changes. At Bloomberg in our department every staff and line- manager at the start of every shift there is a briefing to be held every morning.There is a psychological contract between the staff and the line manger in order to attend the briefing every staff member in the morning is excepted to come 15 minutes early precedent to the starting time, and vice- verse there are allowed to leave 15 minutes earlie r prior to their finish time. In that way trust is not affected, the psychological contract is maintained resulting in an increased loyalty, more efficiency and longer working period. 3. Understand the issues to address at the termination of the employment relationship 1. Explain the differences between fair and unfair dismissalsDismissal is when employer ends the employment they dont always have to give notice. If dismissed, the employer must show theyve a valid reason that they can justify and act reasonably in the circumstances. Fair Dismissal Dismissal is unremarkably fair if an employer can show that it is for one of the following reasons A reason related to an employees conduct A reason related to an employees capability or qualifications for the job Because of a redundancy Because a statutory duty or restriction prohibited the employment being continued Some other substantial reason of a kind which justifies the dismissal.And that they acted reasonably in treating that reaso n as sufficient for dismissal. Unfair Dismissal Unfair dismissal is when employer does not have a fair reason or its not lawful for dismissing an employee. It is when the employer has not followed the correct and lawful companys process when dismissing the employee. Summary dismissal Employee can be dismissed for gross misconduct without employer going through the normal disciplinary procedures. This can happen if, for example, violent towards a colleague, customer or property.Constructive dismissal Is when an employee is oblige to leave their job against their will because of their employers conduct. Example let other employees harass or bullying. Automatically unfair reasons for dismissal (where one year or two years continuity of employment is not required) Dismissals will be automatically unfair if related to A reason connected with pregnancy, taking maternity leave and pay, paternity leave and pay, additional paternity leave and pay (from April 2011) adoption leave and pay, ch ildbirth and parental leave Section 99 of the Employment Rights Act 1996 (ERA).Seeking to exercise the right to request flexible working. Taking leave for family emergencies or to care for dependants Section 57A of the ERA. Taking time off for jury service. potentially fair reasons for dismissal To be fair, a dismissal must be for one of these reasons Capability or qualifications Conduct Illegality or contravention of a statutory duty Some other substantial reason Redundancy The process to follow and reduce the likelihood of unfair dismissal Understanding the purpose and telescope of problem. , Principle Action taken to nature of the problemThe Procedure Oral, first, final written warning and dismissal Gross Misconduct and giving them a chance for Appeal. 2. Explain the importance of exit querys The exit interview at Bloomberg provides an opportunity to allow the employer and employee to express and acquiring their reasons for leaving. Exit interviews can sometimes prove difficu lt to collect information, as some employees prefer, or are not willing to disclose their reasons for leaving or any problems they have had occurred in during their employment.The importance of an exit interview to Employers is that, if conducted well it delivers an excellent opportunity for Bloomberg to gain insight into employees perceptions of the organisation overall, underlying workplace issues and managerial leadership. The importance of an exit interview for the Employee is to voice their views on their working experience during their time at Bloomberg. This also gives them a chance to suggest improvements to their role and to draw a line under their employment relationship. 3. Summarise the signalise stages to be followed when managing redundanciesRedundancy A redundancy occurs where a dismissal is wholly or mainly because employees have repudiated to carry the employers business or intend to cease to carry out the employers business. Either for the purpose for which the e mployers is employed or in the place where the employee was employed. (Kate Russell 2011) Key stages followed in managing redundancy The first stage of redundancy involves provision from HR and line manager arbitrates to discuss the organisation or department structure. The second stage is law honesty identifying the employees which are due to put into risk, by a fair, objective and non discriminatory selection criteria.The third stage involves the moment of truth, information the employees and consultation meetings. The final meeting with the employee will be formal and includes the right to be accompanied. There may be several meetings prior to the final meeting in reference with what help or alternatives could be provided. The fourth stage is if the redundancy occurs it will be in written and with full explanation of redundancy payments of what they are likely to receive. Redundancy pay depends on age, current pay (or statutory limit) and length of service. Pay is calculated as follows 0. weeks pay for each full year of service for those under 22 years of age 1 weeks pay for each full year of service for 22-41 year olds 1. 5 weeks pay for each full year of service for those over 41 The fifth stage is where Employee holds the right to appeal against the decision which has made by the employer. The final stage occurs when there arent any alternative jobs and appeal against the decision, the redundancy payment is realised. After the redundancy is communicated, Employees can often feels depressed. Trainings sessions and advice on seeking new employment are been given.

Harlow’s Theory: Love Essay

The feeling of delight in is, deep, soft, satisfying. Because of its bosomate and intimate nature it is viewed by some as an inapplicable topic for experimental research. But, some(prenominal) our own perception may be, our assigned mission as psychologists is to analyze all facets of human and animal behavior into their component variables. (scientific American , June 1959) Therefore as far as love or affection is concerned, psychologists have been unsuccessful in this quest. The a few(prenominal) things we know about love dont go beyond simple examination, and the few things we read about it have been written better by poets and novelists. But of greater worry is the truth that psychologists tend to feature way less attention to a impulse which penetrates our entire lives. At least psychologists who write books, not only show no importance in the cause and unfolding of love or affection, but they seem to be blinded of its very existence (scientific American, June 1959 )The exp erimentIn the Wisconsin University lab, Harlow investigated the meaning of love, focusing on the relationships between a bobble and its make. He started by making it clear that the love between an infant and the mother was much of an ruttish feeling quite an than something psychological, suporting the borrowing-friendly theory that connection of carenurturewas a far more determining factor in healthy psychological development than nature. ( get at F. Harlow, 1959) Then he showed how early periods of time are crucial to the capacity of attachment, If the early days or weeks of the infant were lost it would be really hard or change surface hopeless to compensate for the loss of initial excited comfort. The unfavorable period thesis confirmed the idea of assigning infants with adoptive mothers as shortly afterward being born. Harlows Hypothesis gave experimental affirmation for prioritizingpsychological over biological motherhood while the advancing risks of adopting babies b eyond birth. It normalized and pathologized adoption at the alike(p) time. ( Harry F. Harlow, 1959)In his experiment Harlow detached baby monkeys from their mothers hours after being born, later arranged the baby animals to be nurtured by ii kinds of artificial monkey mothers. The first mother, mainly made out of bare wire lock was equipped to dispense milk. The other was a wire mother covered with soft terry cloth to the highest degree like fur. Harlows first examination was that baby monkeys that were tending(p) a choice of artificial mothers pass far more time clinging to the terry cloth, even if they didnt have a milk dispenser. This suggested that infant love was no simple response to the cheer of physiological needs. Attachment was not primarily about hunger or thirst. It could not be reduced to nursing (Harry F. Harlow 1958)After the results Harlow made a few more arrangements in his experiment and made yet another important observation. Harlow tried separating the inf ants into two different variables one group was given only the equip mother while the other was given the mother with the cloth. all the babies drank the same amount of milk and grew at the same rate. Yet the similarities ended at that. The babies who were given a soft, physical contact with their cloth mothers behaved quite differently than babies whose mothers were made out of cold, hard wire. Harlow hypothesized that members of the first group benefitted from a psychological resourceemotional attachmentunavailable to members of the second. By providing reassurance and security to infants, cuddling kept normal development on track. (John Wiley and Sons, 1980)MonstersWhat could have been the exact reason that made Harlow sure that emotional attachment was a decisive part of developmental differences? Harlow made another observation when he decided to scare the baby monkeys with strange, loud objects like machines that almost looked like monsters hitting drums. The monkeys raised b y furry cloth mothers made physical contact with their mothers, brushed against them, and eventually made them feel secure. Harlow theorized that they used their mothers as a psychological base ofoperations, allowing them to remain playful and inquisitive after the initial fright had subsided.( John Wiley and Sons, 1980) On the other hand, babies nurtured by wire mesh mothers did not run to their mothers when scared. Rather, they threw themselves on the floor, clinched themselves, rocked back and forth, and screamed in fear. These behaviors intimately mimicked the actions of autistic and deprived children often seen in institutions as well as the pathologic behavior of adults confined to mental institutions.( Harry F. Harlow, 1959) The awesome power of attachment and loss over mental health and illness could hardly have been performed more dramatically.IsolationIn later experiments, Harlows monkeys proved that better late than never was not always right specially when it came to nu rturing an infant. When Harlow allocated his baby monkeys in get along isolation for the first 8 months of their life, forsaking their contact with other babies or with the artificial mothers, they were permanently hurt. Harlow and his friends kept repeating this experiments, assigning baby monkeys to diffrent periods of isolation times. They came up with the conclusion that the impact of early motherly deprivation could be reversed in monkeys only if it had lasted less than 90 days, and estimated that the equivalent for humans was six months. (Harry F. Harlow, 1959)After these critical periods, no amount of exposure to mothers or peers could change the monkeys anomalistic behaviors and make up for the emotional damage that had already happened. When emotional bonds were first established was the key to whether they could be established at all. (scientific American,1959 )In the following investigations, Harlow showed that baby monkeys could also turn to their cloth artificial mothe r for peacefulness and protection. Placing them in a weird spot Harlow allowed the baby monkeys to explore a room both in the presence of their artificial mother and in her absence. Monkeys in the presence of their mother would use her as a secure base to explore the room, by running around the room to explore and going back to their mothers for satey. When the artificial mothers were removed from the room, the effects were tremendous. The baby monkeys no longer had their secure base to explore the room and would often freeze up, crouch, rock,scream, and cry. (Harlow, Harry.1958)Years afterDespites Harry Harlows work claiming and reinforcing a riches of research on love, affection, and motherly relationships, his own personal life later started to fall into pieces. After the life threatening illness of his wife, he drowned in potomania and depression, eventually becoming separated from his own kids. Friends often described him as sarcastic, thigh-fisted, mercenary, obstinate, and cruel. Yet Harlows enduring legacy reinforced the importance of emotional support, affection, and love in the development of children. (Williams & Wilkins. 1964)ConclusionHarlows experiments showed the significance of having a mother or a parent, or even a mechanical mother. The monkeys showed tremendous affection for the artificial mother and it demonstrated how much they needed them. This only leads me to think of the poor abandoned babies whose parents past away or simply left them for adoption and the effect that that is going to cause in their future. Ive also heard in videos I have seen through my history classes of soilders in WWI. As they were anxious(p) the last words that would come out of their mouths would be mom. We sometimes forget and take for granted what we have, Iem very lucky to plead I always had my mother with me and I em so grateful for that.ReferencesHarry F. Harlow, Love in Infant Monkeys, Scientific American 200 (June 1959)68, 70, 72-73, 74 Blum, Deborah. Love at Goon Park Harry Harlow and the Science of Affection. Perseus Publishing, 2002, p. 225 Harry Harlow. A Science Odyssey. PBS. Web. 11 October 2013 McKinney, William T. (2003). Love at Goon Park Harry Harlow and the Science of Affection. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 2254-2255 Harlow, H.F. Early accessible deprivation and later behavior in the monkey. Pp. 154-173 in Unfinished tasks in the behavioral sciences (A.Abrams, H.H. Gurner & J.E.P. Tomal, eds.) Baltimore Williams & Wilkins. 1964. Harlow HF, Dodsworth RO, Harlow MK. Total social isolation in monkeys, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1965 Harlow HF, Dodsworth RO, Harlow MK. Total social isolation in monkeys, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1965 Harlow HF, Dodsworth RO, Harlow MK. Total social isolation inmonkeys, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1965 Harlow HF, Dodsworth RO, Harlow MK. Total social isolation in monkeys, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1965

Criminology Class Notes

Criminology Class Notes for Chapters 1 through 10, and 12 (Full Course Materials) Chapter 1 execration and Criminology What is Criminology? An academic discipline that designs scientific methods to study the nature, extent, ca do, and control of felon manner. What Do Criminologists Do? Criminal Statistics/ discourtesy Measure manpowert involves calculating the amount and trends of felonious recitation and focuses on creating valid and reliable ms of felonious manner. This is d integrity by an analysis of the activities of police and court get along withncies.Measuring unlawful activity not describe to the police by victims. Identifying the victims of execration. Developing Theories of nuisance Causation Criminological orientations Psychological annoyance as a function of personality, development, accessible analyzeing, or cognition (understanding). Biological antisocial behavior as a function of biochemical, genetic, and neurological factors. Sociological exe crable behavior as a product of social forces including neighborhood conditions, poerty, socialization, and group interaction. Criminologists whitethorn use innovative methods to test conjecture.For example, the use of magnetic resonance im agedness to assess the brain function of male batterers. The true hit of offensive activity is still questionable given similar conditions, wherefore do some pot choose detestation art object others do not? Understanding and Describing Criminal Behavior investigate of Specific Criminal Types and offence Patterns 50 grades ago, researchers focused on perceived major detestations including rape, murder, and burglary. Today, some researchers focus on wickednesss including stalking, cyber discourtesy, terrorism, and hate abominations. Example terrorism and the terrorist personality a.Mental illness is not a critical factor in explaining terrorist behavior, virtu anyy terrorists atomic modus operandi 18 not psychopaths. b. Th ere is no terrorist personality. c. Histories of childhood abuse/ detriment and themes of perceived injurist and humiliation atomic number 18 often prominent in terrorist biographies but do not help to explain terrorism. penology Punishment, Sanctions, and Corrections Penology is concerned with the correction and displaceencing of known criminal offenders. While some criminologists may advocate reformation, others may advocate capital penalization and mandatory sentences.Criminologists as a whole be concerned with evaluating the exertioniveness and impact of crime control programs. victimology Criminologists who study exploitation dedicate found that criminals be at greater put on the line for exploitation than non-criminals. Additionally, victims may be engaging in high- venture behavior, much(prenominal) as crime, which change magnitudes their victimization. A History of Criminology The scientific study of crime and criminalness is a relatively recent development. During the Middle dayss (1200-1600) people who violated social and religious norms were collected as being witches or possessed by demons.Torture was used to extract confessions, and criminals acquire harsh penalties, including whipping, branding, maiming, and accomplishment. In the mid 1700s, Italian professor Ces argon Beccaria developed a possibleness that mankind behavior is driven by a election amid the amount of pleasure stooled everyplace the amount of pain or punishment experienced. He signald that in order to reduce or stop criminal behavior, the punishment should be swift, certain, and severe. This theory of free entrust became known as the frameical theory.Classical criminology the theoretical perspective suggesting that (1) people rush free will to choose criminal or conventional behaviors (2) people choose to desire crime for reasons of greed or personal command and (3) crime can be controlled still by the vene yard of criminal sanctions. Positivist Criminological conjecture holds that most criminal behavior is the result of social, psychological, and all the same biological influences. Positivism is the branch of social accomplishment that uses the scientific method of the natural sciences and suggests that man behavior is a product of social, biological, psychological, or economic factors.Biological De destinationinism Ces be Lombroso (1835-1909) is considered the father of criminology. Lombrosos theory of anthropological criminology essentially stated that criminality was inherited, and that some unmatched born criminal could be identified by physical defects, which confirmed a criminal as savage. Lombrosos strict biological determinism is no day yearn taken seriously. Biosocial theory Criminologists have recently linked crime and biological distinctions, and have looked at the link betwixt physical and social traits and their influence on behavior (which as well as take into scotch social and surroundal conditi ons).Sociological Criminology Variables such as age, race, shakeual practice, socioeconomic status and ethnicity have been shown to have been shown to have a crucial relationship with certain categories and patterns of crime. The foundations of sociological criminology can be traced to Adolphe Quetelet (1796-1874) and Emile Durkheim (1858-1917). It employs the use of social statistics to investigate the influence of social factors on the propensity to commit crime. These factors accommodate age, sex, season, climate, race composition, and poverty.According to Durkheim, crime is normal, inevitable, and is useful and occasionally even healthful for golf club (as it can pave the way for social change). Drawing from Durkheim, sociologists have examined the ways that anomie (i. e. , a breakdown of social norms) can produce deviance (a departure from accepted standards of behavior) in communities. The Chicago School Criminologists from the University of Chicago including Robert Ezr a Park (1864-1944), Ernest W. Burgess (1886-1966), and Louis Wirth (1897-1952) determined that social forces operating in urban areas create a crime-promoting environment crime is a social phenomenon.This challenged the widely held belief that criminals were biologically or psychologically impair or morally inferior. These criminologists felt that crime could be eradicated by improving social and economic conditions. Chicago School criminologist Walter Reck little hypothesized that crime occurs when children develop an short(p) self-image, rendering them incapable of controlling their misbehavior. friendlyization Views enquiry during the 1930s and 1940s linked criminal behavior to the select of an individuals relationship to important social serve upes, including education, family life, and chum relations.Edwin Sutherland, the preeminent American criminologist, notable that people learn criminal attitudes from older, to a greater extent experienced offenders. Conflict theory the view that human behavior is shaped by interpersonal conflict and that those who maintain social power will use it to further their own ends. Karl Marx (1818-1883), is the author of Communist Manifesto a description of oppressive labor conditions prevalent during the rise of indus tribulation capitalism. Marx felt that the character of every society is determined by its mode of production, and that the economic system controls all aspects of human life.Exploitation of the working class would eventually lead to class conflict and the end of the capitalist system. The social upheaval of the 1960s prompted criminologists to analyze the social conditions in the get together States that promoted class conflict and crime. A critical criminologist examines and analyzes the social conditions that promote class conflict and crime. Is crime a product of the capitalist system? Developmental Criminology vice research in the 1940s and 1950s conducted by Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck that f ocused on the early onset of delinquency as an indication of a criminal career.The most important factors related to persistent offending was family relations. Children with low intelligence, a background of mental disease, and a mesomorph physique (a human physical type that is marked by greater than average muscular development) were most likely to endure persistent offenders. Contemporary Criminology Classical theory had evolved into Rational Choice Theory the view that crime is a function of a ratiocination-making process in which the potential offender weighs the potential cost and benefits of an il jural act.Lombrosian biological positivism has evolved into contemporary biosocial and psychological trait theory views. Trait theory the view that criminality is a product of abnormal biological or psychological traits. The original Chicago School sociological vision has transformed into Social Structure Theory the view that disadvantaged economic class position is a primary c ause of crime. Social form Theory the view that criminality is a function of peoples interactions with various organizations, institutions, and processes in society. Social process theorists now focus on upbringing and socialization.Many criminologists still view social and political conflict as the root cause of crime. The Gluecks pi angiotensin-converting enzymeering research has influenced a new generation of developmental theorists. Deviant or Criminal? How Criminologists delimit umbrage Deviance is any action that departs from the social norms of society. A deviant act becomes a crime when it is deemed socially harmful or dangerous it will then be specifically defined, prohibited, and punished under the criminal rightly. Crime and deviance are often confused. The shifting definition of deviant behavior is close associated with our concepts of crime.For example, are drawings of naked (fictional) children acts of deviance or criminal acts? Individuals, institutions, or gove rnment agencies may mount a campaign aimed at convincing the public and legal philosophymakers that what is considered a deviant behavior is actually dangerous and must be criminalized. An example is Harry Anslingers moral crusade, in the 1930s, urging the criminalization of marijuana. The Concept of Crime Criminologists adjust themselves with one of several schools of thought regarding what constitutes criminal behavior and what causes people to engage in criminality. The Consensus View of CrimeCrimes are behaviors that all elements of society consider to be repulsive. The criminal judge reflects the values, beliefs, and opinions of societys mainstream. It implies that crime is a function of the beliefs, morality, and rules inherent in Western civilization, and that laws apply equally to all members of society. The Conflict View of Crime This theory depicts society as a collection of diverse groups that are in constant and continuing conflict. Groups, able to do so, assert poli tical power to use the law and criminal rightness system to advance their economic and social positions.Criminal laws are viewed as acts created to protect the haves from the have-nots. The poor go to prison, and the wealthy suck in lenient sentences for even the most serious breaches of law. The Interactionist View of Crime The definition of crime reflects the preferences and opinions of people who hold social power. These people use their influence to impose their definition of right and wrong on the rest of the population. Criminals are individuals that society labels as come outcasts or deviants because they have violated social rules.Crimes are outlawed behaviors because society defines them that way, not because they are inherently evil or immoral acts. Interactionists see criminal law as conforming to the beliefs of moral crusaders, and are concerned with shifting moral and legal standards. Crime and the Criminal Law The concept of criminal law has been recognized for over 3,000 days. Code of Hammurabi Law code issued during the reign of Hammurabi of Babylon (1780 BCE Before our Common Era). It called for compensation (restitution) for a robbery victim if the thief was not caught.This was thought to be fair because the state failed to maintain law and order. Since the state was responsible for restitution, the code reduced feuds and requital between families. Since this time, restitution has been in all criminal codes. Mosaic Code (1200 BCE) It is not only the foundation of Judeo-Christian moral teachings but is also a creation for the U. S. legal system. The code noted prohibitions against acts including murder, theft, perjury, and adultery . Common Law Judge-made law that came into existence during the reign of English King Henry II (1154-1189), when imperial judges began to publish their decisions in local cases.A fixed body of legal rules develop from published judicial decisions. If a new rule was madely utilize in a number of different c ases, it would become a precedent. Precedents would then be commonly applied in all similar cases hence the term common law. Mala in se and mala prohibita We can categorize crimes as either mala in se or mala prohibita. Mala in se crimes are crimes such as murder, rape, or assault that are considered wrong in themselves, based on shared values. Mala prohibita crimes are not wrongs in themselves but are punished because they are prohibited by the government.There is often a omit of consensus close whether such actions (e. g. , use of marijuana, gambling, prostitution) should be abominable. batchs views of the seriousness of various crimes depend on their race, sex, class, and victimization experience. We may also categorize crimes as felonies (serious offenses) or misdemeanors (minor or petty crimes). Social Goals of Contemporary Criminal Law Enforcing social control disapprove revenge Expressing public opinion and morality Deterring criminal behavior Punishing wrongdoing Creat ing equityMaintaining social order The Evolution of Criminal Law Criminal law is constantly evolving to reflect social and economic conditions. Change may be prompted by highly publicized cases that gene outrank fear and concern. Criminal law may change ascribable to shifts in ending and social conventions . For example, in Lawrence v. Texas, the U. S. Supreme Court held that laws banning sodomy between consenting adults in a occult residence were unconstitutional because they violated the due process rights of citizens because of their sexual orientation.Ethical Issues in Criminology What and Whom to Study ? For criminological researchers, a definite ethical dilemma is presented when the info one collects is in fundamental opposition to the values and objectives of his or her funding agency. This is becoming an increasingly important ethical issue to consider as more criminological research projects are being funded by various external sources ranging from private enterprises to government initiatives.When confronted with such a conflict of interest, researchers are faced with the decision of whether to shun certain selective information to protect the mission of their funding agency, or alternatively to go against this mission in the interest of academic integrity. For example, a study funded by the private Corrections Corporation of America that asked researchers to compare the recidivism says of offenders housed in state funded versus privately funded (like CCA) correctional facilities. Criminologists have focused on the poor and minorities while ignoring groups including heart and soul-class white-collar crime and organized crime.Methods used in conducting research must ensure that The subjects are randomly selected and are fully informed well-nigh the purpose of the research. The information must remain confidential, and the sources of information must be protected. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS In order to better understand the workings and motivations of a criminal gang, would it be ethical for a criminologist to hang out with gang members and watch as they commit crime? Should the criminologist report observed criminal gang behavior to the police? Which acts, now legal, would you make criminal, and which currently criminal acts would you legalize?Chapter 2- The Nature and Extent of Crime What is the primary sources of crime data? The FBIs Uniformed Crime coverage (UCR) is the most cited source of U. S. crime statistics. The UCR Program publishes an annual document containing accounts of crimes known to police and information on arrests received on a voluntary basis from 17,000 state and local law enforcement agencies throughout the U. S. Part I crimes the most serious murder and non-negligent manslaughter forcible rape robbery aggravated assault burglary thieving arson push back vehicle theft. Homicide is the most accurate and valid UCR statisticPart II crimes all less serious crimes, including other assaults forgery and co unterfeiting fraud embezzlement stolen space (buying, receiving, possessing) vandalism weapons (carry, possessing, etc. ) prostitution sex offenses drug abuse violations gambling offenses against the family and children driving under the influence liquor laws drunkenness disorderly conduct vagrancy all other offenses (except traffic). Unfounded or false complaints are eliminated, and the number of actual known offenses is reported whether or not an arrest is made.Cleared crimes are also reported cleared via an arrest, charging, and being turned over for prosecution or cleared by exceptional means (ex. , suspect left the country). Validity of the UCR The UCRs accuracy has long been suspect. Many serious crimes are not reported to police. Victims may consider the crime unimportant. Victims may not trust the police. Victims may not have situation insurance. Victims fear reprisals. Victims may be involved in illegal activities themselves. Criticisms aside, the UCR continues to be one of the most widely used source of crime statistics.It is collected in a careful and systematic way. Measurement of year to year change accurate because any chores are stable over time. The National Incident-Based Reporting arranging (NIBRS) is the result of efforts to provide a more comprehensive and detailed UCR the NIBRS collects additional data on each reported crime incident, including a brief account of the incident, arrest, victim, and offender. Crime data may also be collected by means of retrospect research. People are asked about attitudes, beliefs, values, characteristics, and experiences with crime and victimization.The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) Nationwide survey of individual and household victimization conducted by the U. S. Census Bureau for the Bureau of Justice Statistics. It addresses the nonreporting issue. The NCVS sample size is 76,000 households and 135,000 individuals age 12 and older. Households stay in the sample for three years with new households rotated into the sample on an on discharge basis. In 1993, the NCVS was redesigned to provide detailed information on frequency and nature of rape, sexual assault, personal robbery, aggravated and simple assault, household burglary, theft, motor vehicle theft.Victim information provided in the NCVS includes age, sex, race, ethnicity, marital status, income, and education level. Crime information included in the NCVS includes time, place, use of weapons, nature of injury, and economic consequences. Validity of the NCVS It is a more complete picture of the nations crime problem, and addresses the nonreporting issue. It helps us to understand why crimes are not reported to police The NCVS has methodological problems, however. There may be an overreporting due to victims misinterpretation of events. There may be underreporting due to victims embarrassment, fear, or forgetfulness.The future of the NCVS Its effectiveness has been undermined by budget limitations, and its sample size and methods of data collection have been altered. Multiple years of data are now feature in order to comment on change over time this is less desirable than year-to-year change. Criminologists may also measure crime by the use of self-report surveys. Participants are asked to describe their recent and lifetime participation in criminal activity. Most self-report surveys focus on juvenile delinquency and youth crime. Validity of Self-Reports Expecting people to admit illegal acts is unreasonable.Some people exaggerate, forget, or are confused about their criminal acts. Self-reports may measure only nonserious, occasional delinquents while ignoring hard-core continuing offenders who may be institutionalized. Monitoring the Future Survey was an effort to improving the reli might of self-reports. Since 1978, the Monitoring the Future survey, conducted by the University of Michigan Institute for Social Research (ISR), has surveyed high school students across the U. S. It has sho wn that a surprising number of typical teenagers reported involvement in serious criminal behavior.If accurate, the MTF survey data head a much greater crime problem than the UCR and NCVS. Evaluating Crime Data UCR For serious crimes, the arrest data can provide a meaningful measure of criminal activity that other data sources cannot provide. Much criminological research is based on the UCR. NCVS Includes unreported crime and personal characteristics of victims. It relies on personal recollections. The data consists of estimates based on limited samples of the US population, and does not include data on crime patterns, including murder and drug abuseSelf-report surveys can provide information on personal characteristics of offenders, and rely on the honesty of criminal offenders and drug abusers. Crime Trends 1833-1860 gradual increase in the crime rate, especially violent crime Post-Civil war Crime rate increase meaningfully for 15 years. 1880-WWI Reported crimes decreased. S teady ebb until the Depression (about 1930) when another crime wave was recorded. 1930 1960 Crime rate increased gradually. The homicide rate nebed around 1930. 1970s The homicide rate sharply increased. Trends in Officially Recorded Crime 980-1990 Sharp increase in evaluate of robbery, motor vehicle theft, and homicide. There was also an increase in youth firearm homicide rates (adult homicide rates fell). Since 1990 Numbers of crime in decline. There has been a significant drop in UCR violent crimes, including murder, rape, robbery, and assault. The violence rate has dropped almost 40%. Property crime rates have also declined a 10% decline in past decade. Homicide rate held relatively steady from 1950 mid-1960. Homicide rate hit a peak of 10. 2 per 100,000 in 1980. 1980-1991 Homicide rate fluctuated between 8 and 10 per 100,000. 991-2008 Homicide rate dropped more than 40% supporting the fact that the overall crime rate is in remission. Trends in Victimization Similar to the UCR, NCVS data indicate that victimizations have declined significantly during the past 30 years. 1973 44 million victimizations Today 23 million victimizations What the Future Holds Future crime rates may increase due to the large number of children who will enter their crime prone years. Future crime rates may also be offset by the aging of the population large number of senior citizens. Technological and social factors may shape the direction of the crime rate.Technological developments have resulted in new classes of crime. Some moot that the narcissistic youth culture that stresses materialism is being replaced by more moralistic cultural values that may moderate potential crime rate growth. It is similarly early to predict if the overall downward trend in crime rates will continue into the foreseeable future. Crime Patterns The Ecology of Crime Day, season and climate Most reported crimes occur during the warm summer months of July and August. Exceptions Murders and robb eries occur frequently in December and January.Crime rates are higher on the first day of the month. Temperature crime rates seem to increase with rising temperatures and then begin to decline at 85 phases when it may be too hot for any physical exertion. Some criminologists believe that crime rates rise with temperature. Research also indicates that a rising temperature will cause crimes such as home(prenominal) violence to continually increase, while other crimes (such as rape) will decline after temperatures rise to an extremely high level. Extreme temperatures cause stress and tension that prompts the body to release stress hormones.Hormonal activity has been linked to aggression. Regional differences Large, urban areas have the highest violence rates. Rural areas have the lowest per capita crime rates with the exception of low population resort areas with large seasonal populations. Use of Firearms Firearms are involved in about 20% of robberies, 10% of assaults, and over 5% of rapes. Two-thirds of all murders involve firearms most are handguns. Criminals of all races/ethnicities are equally likely to use firearms in violent crimes. Ongoing debate over gun controlCriminologists favoring gun control The proliferation of handguns and the high rate of lethal violence they cause is the single most significant factor separating the US crime problem from that of the rest of the developed world. Criminologists opposed to gun control Kleck and Gertz have found that personal gun use can be a deterrent to crime. Social Class, Socioeconomic Conditions and Crime Crime is generally a lower-class phenomenon. Instrumental crimes occur when those on the lowest rung of the social ladder are uneffective to obtain desired goods and services via conventional means and may resort to illegal activities to obtain them.Expressive crimes Those living in poverty engage in disproportionate amounts of crimes as a result of their rage, frustration, and anger against society. Alco hol and drug use is common in impoverished areas and helps to fuel violent crime. UCR data indicate crime rates in inner-city, high-poverty areas are higher than those in suburban or wealthy areas. Surveys of prisoners consistently indicate prisoners were members of the lower class and unemployed or under-employed in the years prior to incarceration. As alternative explanation is that the relationship between authorized crime nd social class is a function of law enforcement practices. Social class and Self-reports Juveniles in all social classes commit crime. Serious crime is more prevalent in socially disorganized lower class areas. Less serious offenses are spread more evenly throughout the social structure. Community-level indicators of poverty and disorder are associated with the most serious violent crimes. Age and Crime Age is inversely related to criminality. Younger people commit more crime than older people and this relationship has been stable over time. The peak age for property crimes is believed to be 16.The peak age for violent crime is believed to be 18. Young people are arrested at a disproportionate rate to their numbers in the population. Adults age 45 and older account for a third of the population but account for less than 10% of crime arrests. The gray comprise 12 % of the population but less than 1% of arrests. Aging out of crime People commit less crime as they age. Crime peaks in adolescence and then declines rapidly thereafter. Adults develop the ability to delay gratification, start wanting to take responsibility for their behavior, and adhere to conventional norms.Research People who maintain successful marriages are more likely to desist from antisocial behavior than those whose marriages fail. Age and biology Some criminologists believe the key to abstaining and aging out is linked to human biology. Neurotransmitters (serotonin and dopamine) play a role in aggression. Dopamine facilitates offensive behavior. During adolescence, d opamine increases while serotonin is reduced. Change in brain chemistry parallels the aging out process. Gender and Crime Male crime rates are much higher than female crime rates. The male-female arrest ratio is almost four males to one female.Murder arrests Eight males to one female Self-report data (Monitoring the Future data as an example) indicate males self-report more crime but not to the degree suggested by official data. Over the past decade the male arrest rates have declined by 9% female arrest rates have increased by 9%. Increased female arrest rates especially for robbery and burglary Conclusion During the slowing of the overall crime rates, women have increased their participation in crime. Trait differences Lombrosos masculinity hypothesis a few masculine females were responsible for the handful of crimes that women attached.These women lacked typical female traits of piety, maternity, undeveloped intelligence, and weakness. Such viewpoints are no bimestrial taken se riously. Criminologists still link antisocial behavior to hormonal influences, however. Male sex hormones (androgens) account for aggressive male behavior. Socialization Differences Girls are socialized to be less aggressive than boys. Cognitive Differences Superior verbal ability may allow girls and women to talk rather than fight. Social/Political Differences Liberal feminist theory female crime rates linked to the social and economic roles of women in society.Lower female crime rates explained by womens second-class economic and social positions. distaff and male crime rates would converge as womens social roles change and became more like mens. The rapid increase in female crime rates seems to support liberal feminist theory. Race and Crime Minority group members are involved in a disproportionate share of criminal activity. African Americans comprise 12% of the population, yet account for 38% of violent crime arrests, 30% of property crime arrests, and a disproportionate amou nt of Part II arrests. What do data indicate? Data may reflect true racial differences in the crime rate.Data may reflect bias in the umpire process. Monitoring the Future and other self-report data find little evidence of racial dis acquiescement in crimes committed. The delinquent behavior of black and white teenagers are generally similar. Differences in arrest statistics may indicate a differential selection process by police. Critics charge police officers routinely use racial profiling to stop African Americans and search their cars without probable cause or reasonable suspicion. It is improbable that police discretion and/or bias, alone, could account for proportions of minorities arrested for violent crimes, however.Racism and disagreement Some criminologists view black crime as a function of socialization in society the black family torn apart and black culture destroyed beyond recovery. Racism is still an element of daily life in the black community. It undermines conf idence in the justice system and faith in social and political institutions. Racial threat theory As the percentage of African Americans in the population increases, so does the amount of social control that the justice system aims at blacks. Significant research exists to support that the justice system may be racially biased.Black and Latino adults are less likely than whites to receive bail in violent crime cases. Minority juveniles are more likely than white juveniles to be kept in detention pending trial in juvenile court. Indigent or unemployed African Americans are more likely than whites to receive longer prison sentences. Economic and social disparity Racial and ethnic minorities are often forced to live in high crime areas. Racial and ethnic minorities face a greater degree of social isolation and economic deprivation than the white majority. Black youths are forced to at move essentially segregated, under-funded, and deteriorated schools.Family dissolution Family dissolu tion is tied to low employment rates among black males, leading to strained marriages. Increased risk of early death by disease and violence results in a large number of single, female-headed households in black communities. Weakened or disrupted families result in compromised social control. Divorce and separation rates are significantly associated with homicide rates in black communities. chronic Offenders/Criminal Careers A small group of career or chronic offenders account for the majority of all criminal offenses.Wolfgang, Figlio, and Sellins 1972 study, Delinquency in a Birth Cohort The Chronic 6% boys arrested five times or more, who accounted for six percent of the total sample of 9,945 accounted for 51. 9% of all the offenses committed by the cohort, 71% of homicides, 73% of rapes, 82% of robberies, and 69% of aggravated assaults. Arrests and court experiences do little to deter the chronic offender. Female chronic offenders rare 1% What Causes Chronicity? Early onset C hildren who have been released to a variety of personal and social problems, at an early age, are the most at risk to double up offending.Factors characterizing the chronic offender problems in the home and school getting arrested originally age 15 low intellectual development and parental drug involvement. Implications of the Chronic Offender Concept Discovery of the chronic offender has revitalized criminological theory. It is unlikely that social conditions alone can cause chronic offending. Traditional criminological theories have failed to distinguish between occasional and chronic offenders. The chronic offender has become a central focus of crime control policy.Goals of sentencing polices have shifted from rehabilitation to incapacitation. Three strikes laws rules for repeat offenders that require long sentences without release for conviction of a third or higher-order felony. Some states like California and Washington state have passed three strikes laws for repeat offe nders. Three felony offenses require up to a life-term of imprisonment. Truth-in-Sentencing is the requirement that offenders serve a substantial portion of their sentences forrader release on parole (usually 85% of their sentence) for a violent crime. This policy can increase imprisonment costs.DISCUSSION TOPICS Would you answer honestly if participating in a national crime survey asking about your criminal behavior, including your drinking and drug use? Why or why not? How would your honesty and dishonesty impact self-report studies? With regard to gender differences in the crime rate, why do you think that males are more violent than females? Considering the crimes listed as Part I offenses. Are these the most serious crimes in society? Would you add or delete any crimes or behaviors to/from the list? If so, which crimes and why? Chapter 3 Victims and VictimizationThe Classical School of criminology emphasizes that people are rational beings and are free to choose the behaviors they engage in. Victimization theories suggest the same thing in that victims choose to engage in risky activities or choose not to take the time to make themselves less appealing to offenders. Victimology is the scientific study of victims. Victimizations Toll on Society NCVS 23 million victimizations per year Costs of victimization Damaged property pain and suffering involvement of criminal justice system medical costs, lost wages reduced quality of life, fearTotal loss related to criminal victimization $450 billion annually $1,800 per person Individual Costs Assault $9,400 The average murder costs about $3 million. Individuals suffering a violent victimization during adolescence earn about $82,000 less than non-victims due to physical and psychological problems that impede educational and economic success. Some victims become physically disabled. Blaming the victim Innuendos and insinuations from friends, family. Victim blaming is especially painful for rape victims. Negative rea ctions from professionals. Negative reactions from family and friends.Negative reactions from either source reinforces unforegone conclusion about whether the victims experience qualifies as rape. clement and responsive support help rape victims maintain confidence and results in willingness to report their victimizations. Long-Term Stress Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) A condition with symptoms including depression, anxiety, and dangerous behavior. It is a common problem when victims do not receive adequate support. Rape victims are particularly susceptible to PTSD. Adolescent Stress Kids who experience traumatic sexual experiences later suffer psychological deficits.Many run away to escape their environment. Others suffer post-traumatic mental problems. Stress does not end in childhood may have low self-esteem and may be suicidal as adults. They may be re-abused as adults. Abuse as a child may lead to despair, depression, and homelessness as adults. Homeless women are li kely to have suffered childhood physical and sexual abuse, adult sexual assault, and likely to have a register of mental problems. Relationship Stress Victims of spouse abuse suffer an extremely high prevalence of psychological problems. Abusive spouses are likely to abuse their victims psychologically.Fear Victims fear they will be re-victimized. Victims may fear forms of crimes they have not yet experienced. People who have been assaulted fear their homes will be burglarized. Rape victims are especially fearful. People may relocate if they hear that a friend or neighbor has been victimized. Fear is escalated by media accounts of crime and violence. Antisocial Behavior People who are crime victims may be more likely to commit crime themselves. The abuse-crime phenomenon is referred to as the cycle of violence. The Nature of Victimization The Social Ecology of VictimizationLocation Violent crime is more likely to take place in an open, public area during daytime or early evening. Time Serious violent crimes (rape, aggravated assault) after 600 p. m. Less serious violent crimes (unarmed robberies) during the daytime Neighborhood characteristics Central city higher rates of theft and violence than suburban areas Murder significantly higher risk in disorganized inner-city areas Crime in schools During, before, and after-school activities, adult supervision is minimal. Unattended valuables make attractive targets. Ages 12-18 1. 7 million victims of nonfatal crimes at school.Eight percent of students in ninth to twelfth grades reported being threatened or injured. Twenty-two percent of ninth to twelfth graders report illegal drugs were made available to them on school property. Eighty-six percent of public schools report at least one violent crime occurred at their school. The Victims Household Household vulnerability Most vulnerable African American, western, and urban homes Less vulnerable Non-African American, Northeast Ownership Rental homes more so than ow ned homes Factors impacting decreased household victimization Population movement from urban to suburban and rustic family size has been reduced.Victim Characteristics Gender Except for rape and sexual assault, males are more likely to be victims of violent crime. Women are significantly more likely to be victimized by someone they know or with whom they live. evoke partner violence seems to be declining. Research indicates that economic inequality is significantly related to female victimization rates. Age Young people face a much greater victimization risk than older people. Victimization risk diminishes rapidly after age 25. Elderly vulnerable to frauds, scams, stolen checks, purse snatchings, crimes in semipermanent care facilities. Social statusAcross all gender, age, and racial groups, the poorest are the most likely to be victimized. The homeless suffer high rates of assault. The wealthy are more likely to be targets of personal theft crimes. Race and ethnicity African Ame ricans are twice as likely as non-African-Americans to be victims of violent crimes. There has been a significant decline in victimization rates for both groups, however. Marital status Never-married individuals are victimized more those married individuals. Widows and widowers have the lowest victimization risk. Risk is influenced by age and lifestyle. Repeat victimizationPersons and households previously victimized have significantly higher risk of revictimization. Target vulnerability Victims physical weakness or psychological distress makes them easy targets. Target gratifiability Victims have some quality, possession, skill or attribute an offender wants to obtain. Target antagonism Victims characteristics arouse anger, jealousy, or devastating impulses in potential offenders The Victims and Their Criminals Males are more likely to be violently victimized by a stranger females by a friend, acquaintance, or intimate. Crimes tend to be intraracial.Over half of all nonfatal pe rsonal crimes are committed by people known to the victim. Women are especially vulnerable to crime by people they know. Six of every ten rape or sexual assault victims state the offender was known to them. Women are more likely than men to be robbed by a friend/acquaintance. Theories of Victimization Victim precipitation theory the view that victims may initiate, either actively or passively, the confrontation that leads to their victimization. sprightly precipitation occurs when victims act provocatively, use threats or fighting words, or even attack first.Passive precipitation occurs when victims exhibit some personal characteristic than unknowingly threatens or encourages attackers. Victim impulsivity male and female victims score high on impulsivity tests. They may be abrasive, obnoxious, or antagonistic they may lack self-control they may have a physical rather than mental orientation they may be risk takers and fail to take precautions. Research shows a strong associatio n between victimization risk and impulsive personality. Lifestyle theories views on how people become crime victims because of lifestyles that increase their exposure to criminal offenders.Victimization is increased by associating with young men, going out at night, living in urban areas. Victimization is reduced by staying home at night, staying out of public areas, living in rural areas. Crime is not a random occurrence rather, a function of the victims lifestyle. High risk lifestyles Drinking, taking drugs, running away, getting involved in crime. Males lifestyles expose them to risk more so than females lifestyles. The greater the number of girls in a males peer group, the lower their chances of victimization.The greater the involvement with gangs, guns, and drugs, the greater the risk of being ray of light/killed. Most at risk of homicide kids who have served time and who have a history of family violence. Lifestyle risks continue into adulthood. College lifestyle Partying an d recreational drug use increase risk of victimization. Coeds face higher risk of sexual assault than do females in the general population. Criminal lifestyle Involvement in gangs increases risk of victimization for males and females. Carrying a weapon males who carry weapons are three times more likely to be victimized than males who do not (33% versus 10%).Deviant place theory the view that victimization is primarily a function of where people live. The greater the exposure to dangerous places, the more likely people will become victims of crime. People are prone to victimization because they reside in socially disorganized high-crime areas. Neighborhood crime levels may be more significant than individual characteristics or lifestyle for determining victimization. Deviant places Poor, densely populated, highly transient neighborhoods in which commercial and residential properties exist side-by-side.They are home to demoralized kinds of people who are easy targets addicts, hom eless, elderly poor. Safety precautions Effect of safety precautions is less pronounced in poor areas. The presence of numerous motivated offenders requires safety precautions. Routine strikeivities Theory the view that victimization results from the interaction of three everyday factors the availability of suitable targets, the absence of capable guardians, and the presence of motivated offenders. Suitable targets objects of crime (persons or property) that are attractive and readily available.Crime and everyday life Crime began to increase as the country sifted from rural to urban environments. The middle class fled from inner cities to suburbs, promoting a peculiar set of routine activities promoting victimization. Research support for Routine Activities Theory Crime rates increased between 1960 and 1980 because the number of guardians home during the day decreased as a result of increased female participation in the workforce. As adult unemployment rates increase, the juveni le homicide arrest rates decrease. Availability and cost of goods as costs decline, so to do burglary rates.Caring for the Victim President Ronald Reagan created the Task Force of Victims of Crime in 1982. Suggested a balance be achieved between recognizing victims rights and the defendants due process rights. As a result, Congress passed the Omnibus Victim and Witness Protection Act Victim impact statements at sentencing in federal criminal cases greater protection for witnesses More stringent bail laws Use of restitution in criminal cases 1984 Comprehensive Crime Control Act and Victims of Crime Act countenance federal funding for state victim compensation and assistance projectsVictim Service Programs Victim-witness assistance programs 2,000 across the U. S. Victim Compensation Victims receive compensation from the state. Compensations programs differ. Many programs lack adequate funding and organization. Compensation for medical bills, loss of wages and future earnings, coun seling, burial expenses, emergency assistance. Awards typically range from $100 to $15,000 Victim of Crime Act (1984) money derived from penalties and fines imposed on federal offenders used to fund state compensation boards. $300 million per year. Victim AdvocatesCounselors who guide victims through the criminal justice process Research rape survivors assigned victim advocates are more likely to file police reports, less likely to be treated negatively by police, report less distress from medical experiences. Court advocates prepare victims and witnesses re the court process. May provide counselors and transportation to and from court. May reduce victim trauma. Victim Impact statements Allowed by most jurisdictions Victim tells of victimization experiences and effects at sentencing. Research Some research shows victim impact statements result in higher incarceration ates, while other research does not show an appreciable effect. Victim-Offender Reconciliation Programs (VORPs) Med iated face-to-face encounters between victims and their attackers Over 120 programs use 16,000 cases per year Designed for misdemeanor offenses, now also used with felony offenses Victims Rights Every state has a Victims Bill of Rights To be notified of proceedings and the status of the defendant To be present at criminal justice proceedings To make a statement at sentencing To receive restitution from a convicted offender To be consulted before a case is dismissed or plea agreement entered To a speedy trialTo keep the victims contact information confidential Sex offender enrollment laws have been adopted at federal level and by most states. Criminology in the News Following a felony assault conviction, Chris dark-brown was sentenced to 5 years probation and 180 days of community service. He is serving his community service near his home in Richmond, VA, and he has done yard work at a police horse stable, washed government cars, picked up trash, and cleaned graffiti. Additionally , brown must undergo a year of domestic violence counseling. By November 25, 2010, Brown had completed 581 hours of community service.In January 2011, Brown completed mandated domestic violence counseling. In March 2011, Brown picked up a chair and smashed a window in a dressing room at the Good Morning America studio in Manhattan following an interview in which he is asked about his assault conviction. The studio did not press charges. During his childhood, Browns stepfather was apparently, abusive towards his mother. At age 11, Brown warned his mother that he would very likely go to jail before age 15 for killing his stepdad over what hed done to her I just want you to know that I love you. only whenIm gonna take a baseball bat one day while you at work, and Im gonna kill him. His stepfather, who lived with Brown and his mother in a trailer park, also once attempted suicide by shooting himself in the head. The bullet missed his brain but went straight through his eyes, leaving h im permanently blind. Brown recalled what it was like to grow up with so much violence When youre blind, your senses are heightened, like your smell, hearing, your sense of touch. You can move and maneuver around your sight. But he used to hit my mom.He made me terrified all the time, terrified like I had to pee on myself. I remember one night he made her nose bleed. I was crying and thinking,Im just gonna go crazy on him one day I hate him to this day. Rihannas Upbringing Rihannas childhood was marred by her fathers struggles with addictions to alcohol and crack cocaine and her parents marital problemsthey divorced when she was 14 years old. DISCUSSION TOPICS Do you agree with the authors assessment that a school is one of the most dangerous locations in the community? Do you think your high school was a dangerous environment?Why or why not? What would you advise female college students do to lower their risk of being sexually assaulted? How does your advice relate to the college lifestyle? How should male college students be advised regarding their potential for committing sexual assault? Why is it that society places more blame on females than males when it comes to sexual assault and the college lifestyle? How can this imbalance be remedied? Chapter 4 Choice Theory Because They Want To The criminal justice system in the U. S. is based on the rational choice theory and deterrence.The criminal justice system emphasizes that criminals choose to commit crime, and thus they must be punished. This will then deter them from committing crime again. Since certainty and swiftness are impossible in the U. S. , the U. S. criminal justice system emphasizes inclementness. However, as the chapter notes, severity is but one of the three elements of deterrence and some argue that it is the weakest. Rational Choice Theory (Choice Theory) the insert that crime is a function of a decision-making process in which the potential offender weighs the probable costs and benefi ts of an illegal act.Its roots are in the important school of criminology developed by Cesare Beccaria. The classical approach was replaced by positivist criminology that focused on internal and external factors rather than personal choice and decision making. In the late 1960s, criminologists re-embraced classical ideas. Becker argued that except for a few mentally ill people, criminals behave in rational ways when deciding to commit crime. Wilson noted that offenders value the excitement and thrill of crime, have a low stake in conformity, and are willing to take greater risks than the average person.Evaluating the Risks of Crime ain factors money, revenge, thrills Situational factors target availability, security measures, police presence Burglars choose targets based on value, novelty, resale potential. The decision to commit crime is enhanced by the promise of easy gain with low risk. Those that choose to forgo crime may feel that they stand a good chance of being caught an d punished. They fear the consequences of punishment they risk losing the compliance of peers, their reputation may be damaged, and they may experience guilt or shame. Crime is Both Offense and Offender-SpecificOffense-specific the idea that offenders react selectively to the characteristics of particular crimes. Offense-specific factors include Evaluating the target yield Probability of security devices Police patrol effectiveness Availability of a getaway car Ease of bewraying stolen merchandise strawman of occupants Presence of neighbors Presence of guard dogs Escape routes Entry points and exits Offender-specific the idea that offenders evaluate their skills, motives, needs, and fears before deciding to commit crime. Offender-specific factors include Possession of necessary skills Immediate need for money or valuablesExistence of legitimate financial alternatives Resources to commit the crime Fear of expected apprehension and punishment Option of alternative criminal acts P hysical ability Offenders Economic Need/Opportunity A small number of prostitutes choose to supplement their income via prostitution. Drug users report increasing their criminal involvement proportionate to the costs of their habits. Some offenders are misled about the financial rewards of crime. Evaluating personal traits and experience Career criminals learn limitations of their expertise. Criminals appear to be more impulsive and have less self-control.Some criminal opportunities are simply too good to pass up. Criminal expertise Criminals report learning techniques to help avoid detection. Women are drawn into dealing drugs learn the trade in a businesslike manner. Choosing the place of crime Criminals cautiously choose where they will commit crime. Drug dealers evaluate the desirability of sales area, preferring the middle of a long block due to visual advantages. Choosing targets Burglars check if dwelling is occupied. Burglars track predictable behavior patterns of occupants. Burglars prefer working between 900 and 1100 a. m. nd in the afternoon when parents are working or transporting children to and from school. Is Crime Rational? Target selection seems highly rational. Auto thieves selective in choice of targets for stripping. Burglars choose targets based on value and resale potential. Burglars like to work close to home where they blend in and will not get lost when returning home with their loot. Is Drug Use Rational? At its onset, drug use is controlled by rational decision making. Drug dealers approach their profession in a businesslike fashion. Can Violence Be Rational? Violent criminals select suitable targets based on vulnerability.Robbers choose targets in familiar areas where they have fellowship of escape routes referred to as awareness space. That avoid free-standing buildings where they can be surrounded by police. They shy away from victims who may be armed and potentially dangerous. Robbers may target those with dirty hands, such a s drug dealers. They may choose targets in order to send a message. Why Do People displume Crime? Edgework Crime is a more attractive alternative than law-abiding behavior. This is due to the adrenaline rush that comes from the exhilarating, momentary integration of danger, risk, and skill. The Seduction of CrimeKatz There are immediate benefits to criminality and seductions precede the commission of crime and draw offenders into law violations. Vanquishing opponents The thrill of getting away with crime due to personal competence surreptitious thrills A criminal lifestyle may be beneficial to those experiencing stress. Antisocial behavior gives adolescents the opportunity to exert control over their lives. Controlling Crime Situational crime prevention a method of crime prevention that seeks to eliminate or reduce particular crimes in narrow settings. Criminal activity can be reduced if planners are aware of the characteristics of sites and ituations that are at risk of crime. Criminals acts avoided if Targets are carefully guarded. The means to commit crime are controlled. Potential offenders are carefully monitored. Reducing opportunity. Defensible space the principle that crime can be prevented or displaced by modifying the physical environment to reduce the opportunity individuals have to commit crime. Oscar Newmans defensible space crime can be prevented or displaced via the use of residential designs that reduce criminal opportunity. Crime Prevention Strategies Increase the effort essential to commit crime Unbreakable glass on storefrontsLocking gates, fencing yards Installing brighter lights Owners photo on credit cards Security devices on cars Increase the risk of committing crime Crime discouragers people who serve as guardians of property or people Reduce the rewards of crime Marking property so it is difficult to sell Gender-neutral phone listings Tracking systems Induce guilt increase shame Publishing John lists Reduce provocation Earlier closing times for bars and pubs Anti-bullying programs in schools Remove excuses Electronic roadside speed displays The Costs and Benefits of Situational Crime PreventionHidden Benefits Diffusion an effect that occurs when efforts to prevent one crime unintentionally prevent another. Discouragement an effect that occurs when crime control efforts targeting a particular locale help reduce crime in surrounding areas and populations. Hidden Costs Displacement an effect that occurs when crime control efforts simply move or redirect offenders to less heavily guarded alternative targets. Extinction an effect that occurs when crime reduction programs produce a short-term positive effect, but benefits dissipate as criminals adjust to new conditions.Replacement an effect that occurs when criminals try new offenses they had previously avoided because situational crime prevention programs neutralized their crime of choice. General deterrence a crime control policy that depends on the fe ar of criminal penalties, convincing the potential offender that the pains associated with crime outdo its benefits. Crime can be controlled via increasing the real or perceived threat of criminal punishment. Certainty of Punishment If the certainty of arrest, conviction, and sanctioning increases, crime rates should decline.Crime will persist if offenders believe that, if caught, they have a good chance of escaping punishment. Research indicates a direct relationship between crime rates and the certainty of punishment. Police and Certainty of Punishment Increasing the number of police officers on the street should cut the crime rate. The deterrent effect of police has been supported by research. Proactive, aggressive law enforcement is more effective than routine patrol. Severity of Punishment The threat of severe punishment should reduced the crime rate. There is little consensus regarding the severity of punishment, however. Speed of Punishment and DeterrenceThe faster punishmen t is applied and the more closely punishment is linked to the crime, the more likely it will serve as a deterrent. Deterrent effect neutralized if there is a significant time lag between apprehension and punishment. Elapsed time between conviction and execution over ten years in many death penalty cases. Inter-relationship of severity, certainty, and speed the factors may influence one another. Certainty of punishment seems to have a great impact than its severity or speed. Critique of General Deterrence Rationality Some offenders suffer from personality disorders that impair judgment.Elevated emotional state of sex offenders negates the deterrent effect of the law. Alcohol impedes a persons ability to think rationally. System effectiveness American legal system is not very effective only 10% of all serious crimes result in apprehension. Many crimes go unreported. Police discretion impacts effect of deterrence. Odds of receiving a prison sentence is less than 20 per 1,000 crimes co mmitted. Deterrability Deterrence impacts people differently. Threat of courtly sanctions is irrelevant to high-risk offenders. Personality and mental disorders make people immune to deterrent power of the law.Some crimes are more deterrable than others minor offenses easier to deter serious crimes harder to deter. Specific deterrence the view that criminal sanctions should be so powerful that offenders will never repeat their criminal acts (recidivism). There is no clear-cut evidence that punishment effectively deters criminals. One possible exception is domestic violence. Short-term effect when police take formal action (arrest), offenders are less likely to recidivate. Long-term effect effect of arrest quickly decays and may actually escalate the frequency of repeat domestic violence.Arrest and punishment seems to have little effect on chronic and experienced offenders. Two-thirds of all convicted offenders are rearrested within three years of their release from prison. Incarc eration may slow or delay recidivism in the short-term but the overall probability of re-arrest is not reduced. The harshest punishments may increase crime. Punishment may result in defiance rather than deterrence. Stigma of harsh punishment locks offenders into a criminal career. Criminals may believe that the likelihood of getting caught twice for the same type of crime is remote.Experiencing the harshest punishments may cause severe psychological problems. In neighborhoods where everyone has a criminal record, the effect of punishment erodes and offenders feel victimized. Incapacitation effect the view that if more criminals are sent to prison during their prime crime years, it will reduce their lifetime opportunity to commit crime. Can Incapacitation Reduce Crime? Some experts find incapacitation reduces crime. Crime rate has dropped while prison population has risen. Economist Levitt concludes that each person behind bars results in a 15% decrease in serious crimes per year.So me experts argue against incapacitation. They feel that there is little evidence that incapacitating criminals will deter them from future criminality. Their additional views Prison experiences expose first-time offenders to high-ri